The experience of parenting non-biological children (foster, adoption, hosts) among parents who have biological children

The present study examined the experience of non-biological parenthood among adoptive parents, foster parents, and mentoring parents, specifically within families who also have biological children. For the purpose of this study, non-biological parenthood was defined as parenting children who were placed in out-of-home family frameworks due to neglect, environmental deprivation hindering normative development, or risk situations threatening the child’s well-being (Trivedi, 2019).

The theoretical framework integrated Bowlby’s attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969) and Belsky’s ecological model (Belsky, 1984) in order to deepen the understanding of non-biological parenthood. Attachment theory views the bond between the child and the caregiver as an innate developmental process that provides the child with a sense of security, emotional regulation, and the capacity to form meaningful relationships. Children who did not experience secure attachment in early childhood may still develop secure attachment with new attachment figures (Shalem, 2021; Bowlby, 1969; Raby & Dozier, 2019). Complementing this, Belsky’s ecological model conceptualizes parenting as the product of interaction between three components: parental characteristics, child characteristics, and the broader environmental context. In this study, particular emphasis was placed on the environmental context, especially the type of caregiving framework: permanent (such as adoption) versus temporary (such as foster care or mentoring). The integration of these theories enabled exploration of how the interaction between framework type and the effort to establish secure attachment with non-biological children shapes the parental experience.

The study employed a qualitative phenomenological approach, aimed at illuminating a phenomenon and understanding its meaning from the perspective of those who experience it. Thirty non-biological parents participated: ten adoptive parents, ten foster parents, and ten mentoring parents, each with at least one biological child. Data were collected through open, semi-structured in-depth interviews guided by an interview protocol. Data collection and analysis followed a multiple case study design (Stake, 2006), in order to examine the unique contexts of each parental group (adoption, foster care, mentoring) and to enable cross-group comparisons.

The findings describe the experiences of non-biological parents raising children alongside their biological children, as revealed through interpretative phenomenological analysis of the interviews. Results are presented in three main sections:

(A) Between a temporary and a permanent home: Findings indicate that the formal structure of the caregiving framework: permanent (adoption) or temporary (foster care and mentoring), fundamentally shapes the parenting experience. Parents described temporariness as a source of uncertainty, emotional instability, and conflict. However, when a temporary home became permanent. for example, transitions from foster care to adoption, parents reported a profound sense of security, stability, and permanence that transformed their parenting experience.

(B) Different faces of non-biological parenthood: Findings revealed differences among the three types of parenthood, reflecting distinct emotional landscapes and coping strategies. Adoptive parents described strong commitment, a compensatory approach addressing past deficits, a consolidated parental identity, and full parental love. Mentoring parents, in contrast, reported less clear commitment, a more compromising parental approach, a shaken parental identity, and affection that did not parallel their love for biological children. Foster parents were positioned in between, resembling adoptive parents in commitment, identity, and love, yet their approach fluctuated between compensation and compromise, depending on the uncertainty of the child’s future placement. 

(C) Shared experiences of non-biological parenthood: Beyond the differences among frameworks, a broad common ground emerged. Parents described experiences of chosen parenthood, a sense of mission, and privilege. At the same time, they reported common challenges: lack of parental intuition, feelings of unfamiliarity, and persistent uncertainty regarding the child’s past and future. These findings highlight non-biological parenthood as a unique identity space, where deep processes of transformation in parental, and at times personal, identity may occur.

The findings extend central theories in developmental psychology, particularly Bowlby’s attachment theory and Belsky’s ecological model, adapting them to the context of non-biological parenthood. Results indicate that the parent, not only the child, requires a “secure base”, legal, emotional, and social, to enable the establishment of a stable relationship. Furthermore, the study illuminates non-biological parental identity as an ongoing process of negotiation over recognition, belonging, and parental intuition, suggesting that this form of parenthood should be understood as a reflexive identity construction rather than as a natural state.

At the practical level, the study underscores the need for implementing a “permanent home” policy, ensuring stable, secure, and lasting family frameworks for both parents and children.