Fatherhood after arrest: The contribution of narcissistic traits, paternal self-efficacy and maternal support to released prisoners' warmth and involvement in raising their children

The characteristics of fatherhood among prisoners are insufficiently described in literature, and those found among released prisoners have received little scholarly attention. The term released prisoner encapsulates some reference to the implications of imprisonment on the life of an individual following release from prison. Returning to society and family life is typically a time of crisis for former prisoners and their families. The process of settling back into the family context is very complex, paternal functioning undergoes many changes, and former prisoners encounter numerous difficulties during this time.

The last thirty years have seen a surge in research on fathering and fatherhood. As the cultural definition of fatherhood shifted from provider to nurturer, fathers have become active parents that are increasingly involved in childrearing (Coltrane, 2004; Lamb & Lewis, 2010), and their personality traits form a significant factor in shaping parental behavior. The present study investigated the extent to which the narcissistic traits and perceived parental competence of released prisoner-fathers contribute to the degree of parental involvement with and warmth displayed towards their children, as compared with a control group of “regular” fathers with no history of incarceration.

The study relies on the research and clinical evidence on narcissistic parenting indicating the hardships parents endure in their attempt to contain their children's difficulties, as well as on literature pertaining to parental competence. The present study examined paternal practices following respondents' release from prison, focusing on fatherly involvement and warmth displayed, as well as mothers' support of the former prisoners' parenting as a factor moderating the link between narcissistic personality traits and perceived paternal competence, and fathers' involvement and warmth.

Method: 55 fathers who had been released from prison participated in the study, and were compared with a control group consisting of 55 “regular” fathers with no history of incarceration. All the respondents answered six questionnaires: a questionnaire on demographic details; a questionnaire examining narcissistic personality streaks – PNI; a questionnaire probing the perception of parenting  competence – PCOC; a questionnaire assessing fathers' involvement in the upbringing of their children – IFI; a questionnaire examining fathers' expressed feelings towards their children – PARQ-S; and a questionnaire studying fathers' perceptions of mothers' support of their parenting.

Findings: the first study hypothesis was that a difference would be found in fathers’ involvement and displays of affection towards their children, as well as their perceived parental competence, between those fathers who were released from prison and the control group. This hypothesis was partially supported, as control group fathers indeed reported higher levels of affection and warmth towards their children. The second study hypothesis was that the higher the narcissistic personality traits are, the lower the fatherly involvement and displays of warmth and affection would be. This hypothesis was also only partially supported with regard to the extent of fatherly involvement. The study found that narcissistic personality traits were negatively associated with fatherly involvement mainly amongst the group of released prisoners as compared to control group fathers. Nevertheless, and contrary to the hypothesis, a reversed linkage was found in the control group with regard to expressions of warmth, so that the higher the narcissistic personality traits were, the  higher the expressions of warmth. The third hypothesis, which assumed that the higher the perceived paternal competence was, the higher their fatherly involvement and displays of affection towards their children would be, was fully affirmed. The fourth hypothesis was that the more mothers were perceived by fathers as supportive of the latter's parenting, the greater the degree of fathers' perceived parental competence and involvement in the upbringing of their children. This hypothesis was affirmed only within the control group. The fifth hypothesis assumed that mothers' support of fathers' parenting would moderate the association between narcissistic personality traits and parental competence, and fathers’ involvement and display of affection and warmth towards their children so that, to the extent that fathers report mothers as being supportive of their parenting, the link between narcissistic personality traits and fatherly involvement and affection would be weaker, and the connection between fathers' perceived parental  competence and fatherly involvement and affection would be stronger. This hypothesis was partially supported; the study found that mothers' support contributed to more involvement mainly among fathers whose perceived competence was lower. Moreover, it found that motherly support contributed to increased affection among fathers with narcissistic personality traits.

Interactions with groups were also revealed: narcissistic traits reduced fatherly involvement primarily among released prisoners; whereas high parental competence contributed to fatherly involvement mainly in the control group.

These findings show that narcissistic traits, as well as perceived parental competence, contribute differently to the fathering of released prisoners versus that of control group fathers. It was further revealed that the bond with the mother is essential in a father’s perception of his parental competence. It follows, therefore, that thought should be devoted, and appropriate interventions considered with regard to those factors during the rehabilitation process of released prisoners.

Released prisoners are a unique population in need of support combining focus on their personal characteristics as well as the complex situation in which they find themselves upon being released from prison. Little research knowledge exists on fatherhood among released prisoners, hence the importance of this study. The current research allows for an additional assessment of the various factors contributing to prisoners' reintegration into their families, providing further knowledge on the need for special interventions during this crucial transition. Following the above, the present study findings may enhance the knowledge of social workers in this area, and help released prisoners as they strengthen their family ties in general, and in relation to their parenthood in particular. Presumably, by doing so, better reintegration of former prisoners into  their families will be allowed, including appropriate consideration of their children’s needs. Such better reintegration will lead to fathers becoming part of society more wholly, and perhaps even lead to reduced recidivism.