Mothers of latency-age children: The contribution of childhood experiences and self-differntiation to parenting styles and parenting stress.

Intergenerational transmission of parenting styles experienced in childhood to current parenting styles has been a major topic of research and intervention in recent years. Most of the studies in this field have been conducted among parents of infant and preschool children (aged 0-6) and among parents of adolescents, whereas fewer studies have examined parents of latency-age children (aged 6-12), despite the challenge involved in responding to the developmental tasks that latency-age children cope with. The present study was based on dynamic theories, family theories, and ecological theories, which offer a framework for understanding the processes and variables related to intergenerational transmission of parenting styles from the past to the present. In this context, the study also examined three dimensions of perceived "parenting stress" among mothers of latency-age children: the mothers' distress, dysfunctional mother-child interaction, and the mothers' perceptions of their child's difficulties. Based on a multivariate ecological model of parenting, the study explored how the mothers' current parenting styles and perceptions of parenting stress were related to four clusters of variables: (1) the mother's personal variables (age, education, socioeconomic situation, and number of children); (2) characteristics of the mother's past history (e.g., the perceived parenting style of her own mother, and the mother's trauma of childhood abuse ); (3) the mother's personality characteristics (e.g., self-differentiation); and (4) characteristics relating to the child referred to in the responses to the questionnaire (such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder).

            Based on the theoretical model described above, which assumes that current parenting styles and parenting stress are affected by the interaction between variables related to the mother's past history, personality characteristics, and characteristics of her child, the following hypotheses were put forth: Women who experienced a negative parenting style (authoritarian or permissive) in childhood will adopt a negative parenting style (authoritarian or permissive) in the present, and they will have high levels of parenting stress. In contrast, women who experienced a positive (authoritative) parenting style in the past will adopt a positive (authoritative) parenting style in the present, and they will have low levels of parenting stress. In addition, it was hypothesized that trauma of childhood abuse will be related to negative (authoritarian or permissive) parenting styles in the present, as well as to high levels of parenting stress. It was also hypothesized that high self-differentiation would be related to a positive (authoritative) parenting style and low levels of parenting stress, whereas low levels of self-differentiation would be related to negative (authoritarian or permissive) parenting styles in the present and high levels of parenting stress. Finally, it was hypothesized that children's special difficulties would be related to high parenting stress. The research questions related to the relative contribution of the independent research variables to explaining the various parenting styles (authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative) and parenting stress. The questions also examined the role of self-differentiation as a moderating variable in the relationship between the participants' perceptions of their own mother's parenting style in childhood and their current parenting style as well as their level of parenting stress in the present.

            There were two research aims. First, the study aimed to examine parenting and the development of parenting styles from a broad perspective, which takes into account the impact various ecological systems. Second, the study aimed to examine the potential contribution of self-differentiation as a moderating variable in the relationship between the participants' perceptions of their own mothers' parenting style and their current parenting styles as well as parenting stress in the present.

            The participants in the study were 169 mothers with at least one latency-age child (aged 6-12). Most of the participants were reached through the researcher's personal connections, and through special Internet forums for mothers; a relatively small number of mothers were reached through social service departments. Participants completed five self-report questionnaires: the Parenting Authority Questionnaire (PAQ), which consisted of two separate versions – one version measured the mother's parenting style in the present, and other measured the parenting style experienced by the mother in childhood; the Level of Differentiation of Self Scale (LDSS); the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ); the Parental Stress Inventory (PSI); and a general sociodemographic questionnaire including the mother's background variables, family variables, and a question about special difficulties of the child referred to in the responses to the questionnaire.

            Consistent with the above-mentioned theories and with the findings of previous research, the results of the study confirmed the main research hypothesis regarding intergenerational transmission of parenting styles, including intergenerational transmission of child abuse. Specifically, the findings revealed that perceived authoritarian parenting in childhood was associated with authoritarian parenting in the present, and with high levels of parenting stress. In a similar vein, mothers who experienced a permissive parenting style in childhood had a permissive parenting style in the present as well as high levels of parenting stress. In contrast, authoritative parenting in childhood was not associated with authoritative parenting  in the present, although it was associated with low levels of parenting stress (confirming the research hypothesis).

            Consistent with the research hypotheses, the findings revealed that a maternal history of child abuse contributed directly to a negative (permissive) parenting style in the present, as well as to high levels of parenting stress. This contribution is also consistent with previous empirical findings regarding the risk of intergenerational transmission of child abuse. In addition, mothers who were characterized by high levels of self-differentiation tended to adopt a positive (authoritative) parenting style and showed low levels of parenting stress. No association was found between levels of self-differentiation and negative parenting styles (authoritarian and permissive). In addition, mothers who reported that their child had special difficulties reported high levels of parenting stress.

            Examination of the relative contribution of the research variables to the mothers' present parenting styles reveals that younger mothers with lower levels of education and a large number of children had an authoritarian parenting style. The variable that contributed most significantly to predicting authoritative parenting was a high level of maternal self-differentiation. The set of variables that contributed most significantly to a permissive parenting style in the present were: a low level of education, a negative parenting style (authoritarian or permissive) in childhood, and childhood trauma of abuse. Nonetheless, self-differentiation did not have a moderating effect on the relationship between the mothers' perceived parenting styles in childhood and their parenting styles in the present.

            Examination of the relative contribution of the research variables to parenting stress in the present reveals that the mother's personal variables (low level of education and poor economic situation(, as well as the mother's past history (perceived negative parenting styles in childhood), her personality characteristics (low self-differentiation), and the child's characteristics (i.e., a child with special difficulties) predicted higher levels of parenting stress. Moreover, the findings indicate that of the three dimensions of parenting stress, the research variables best explained the dimension of mother's distress. Finally, the research findings highlight the role of self-differentiation as a moderating variable in the relationship between the mothers' perceived parenting in childhood and parenting stress in the present. However, this relationship was in a different direction than that of the direct relationships between the variables. Whereas the direct relationships revealed that high self-differentiation was associated with a positive parenting style, the interaction between the variables revealed that the relationship between the negative parenting styles and high parenting stress was stronger when the mothers had high levels of self-differentiation. This finding indicates that high self-differentiation in and of itself does not ensure positive parenting if it is not accompanied by internalization of an alternative parenting model.

            The research findings contribute to broadening and enhancing empirical knowledge on intergenerational transmission of parenting styles in general and intergenerational transmission of child abuse in particular among mothers of latency age children. In addition, to the best of our knowledge the study examined, for the first time, the moderating role of self-differentiation in this context. On a practical level, the findings can be applied to developing preventive and therapeutic interventions within the community in an attempt to reduce intergenerational transmission of poor parenting, and to help "break" the multigenerational cycle of abuse by encouraging positive parenting styles. In light of the findings, we recommend that social workers and therapists working with mothers should focus on helping them process their past experiences, in addition to enhancing the mothers' self-differentiation. Concomitantly, specific parenting guidance should be provided in an attempt to help the mothers develop tools that are different from those they were exposed to in childhood. Finally, the findings highlight the importance of continuous counseling and guidance in the therapeutic process, especially among mothers of children who have been diagnosed with developmental and special difficulties.