Battered women residents in shelters: A comparison between battered Arab and Jewish women in self-control, life threatening and depression.

Partner abuse is the most common form of violence against women, and its incidence increases annually (Kurg, Dahlberg, Mercy, Zui & Lozano, 2002). The definition of partner abuse depends on time and cultural codes, and varies by society or community (Sokoloof & Dupont, 2005). Nevertheless, the most common definition describes partner abuse as a traumatic experience stemming from emotional, mental and cognitive damage as well as physical violence causing injuries, disability or even death (Dutton, 1992; Golding, 1999).

Domestic violence against women has brought about many theories trying to explain this phenomenon. Some theories studied the psychological characteristics of the victim and the aggressor, while others focused on the role of socialization and  education on gender inequality. Feminist theories are an example of the latter. Most of the theories were developed in post-industrial western societies in which the definition of partner abuse, its implications and applications might not be suitable for ethnic minorities. In parallel to theories, therapeutic interventions started to emerge in order to provide an adequate response and help for women. Of the various professional interventions offered to battered women, shelters are considered the most significant link which provides women protection, support and assistance in breaking the circle of violence (Ben-Porat, 2002).

There is a lack of empirical research about battered women residing in shelters in Israel, and very little is known about the contribution of these shelters (Ben-Porat, 2002; Bybee & Sullivan, 2002; 2005). This gap of knowledge is even more pronounced among Arab women, citizens of Israel, who are part of an ethnic group. This is in spite of their high representation in shelters (Ministry of Social Affairs, 2009; 2011).

In light of the above and due to the lack of empirical research about battered women in shelters in general, and amongst the Arab population in particular, the current study aimed to deepen the understanding on domestic violence against Arab women. For

this purpose, battered Arab and Jewish women residing in shelters were compared,  while considering the cultural and socio-political characteristics of the Arab society in Israel. The study focused on comparing the two groups of women on three personal variables: self-control, life threatening experiences and depression. In this context, it is important to note that the current study is a part of bigger and wider study conducted by Prof. Haya Yitzhaki, Prof. Rachel Dekel and Dr. Anat Ben-Porat of Bar-Ilan University featured with the Ministry of Social Affairs.

The literature indicates that there is an association between the three aforementioned variables (Cascardi & O'Leary, 1992; Gleason, 1993; Pico-Alfonso, Liners, Navarro, Ros, Echeburua & Martinez, 2006). Researches have demonstrated that lack of self-control may negatively affect battered women's ability to anticipate short term outcomes, their cognitive functioning, their decision-making ability (Seligman, 1975), as well as their ability to evaluate the danger to which they are exposed (Abramson, Seligman & Teasdale, 1978; Walker, 1979). In addition, researchers have found that the combination of low self-control and life threatening experiences increased depression among battered women ( Gleason, 1993; Pico-Alfonso et al., 2006; Tutty, Weaver & Rothery, 1999).The literature has also pointed to an association between the three personal characteristics and demographic variables of battered women, such as economic status, the use of social services, education level, employment, age at marriage, length of stay with the abusive partner, previous separations and type of violence (Brown, Reedy, Fountain, Johnson & Dichier, 2000; Kim & Gray, 2008; O'neill & Kerig, 2000). Therefore, the current study examined the associations between the three personal characteristics and demographic (background) variables.

The sample included 334 battered women who had been residing in shelters. During the years 2009-2012, when the women entered the shelters, they were asked to complete questionnaires which were translated to Arabic. The response rate was 36.60%.

The Hypotheses of the study were divided into three categories: 1) hypotheses referring to differences between the two groups on the three personal characteristics; 2) hypotheses concerning the associations among the three personal characteristics; 3) hypotheses regarding associations between the personal characteristics and the demographic variables.

The findings suggested that there were no significant differences between the two groups of women in self-control and life threatening experiences. Yet, there was a significant difference regarding depression: the Arab women reported higher levels of depression than the Jewish women. This finding may be explained by the cultural differences between the two groups and the effects each culture has on modeling and expressing distress. It was also found that, among Arab participants; more life threatening experiences in their relationship were associated with higher levels of depression.

Regarding the demographic variables, the results showed that Arab women reported more physical violence than Jewish women. This finding was consistent with previous studies on minorities that emphasized the association between belonging to a minority group and the prevalence and frequency of physical abuse, and the association between these aspects of physical abuse (prevalence and frequency) and depression (Campbell, Belknap & Templin, 1997; Lerner, Kertes & Zilber, 2005; Yick, Shibusawa & Agbayani-Siewert, 2003). Additional findings showed that longer stays with the partner were associated with more life threatening experiences among all women - a finding which was consistent with previous studies (Cascardi & O'Leary, 1992; Farmer & Tiefenthaler, 2006).

The importance of the current study relies on its uniqueness and its double contribution both on the theoretical and practical levels. On the theoretical level, the current study targeted a unique population of battered women residing in shelters all over the country. Moreover, it focused on a group of women who has been relatively neglected empirically - Arab women in Israel. This group was compared to Jewish women. The theoretical importance of the current study is evident on several levels. On the macro level, this study is helpful in understanding the violence problem, not from a psychological point of view, as in previous studies, but rather from socio-cultural and political perspectives and their contribution to the difficult problem of partner abuse. On the micro level, the study is important for professionals because it helps them understand the unique characteristics of battered Arab woman. This may assist professionals in rethinking and developing more beneficial and sensitive interventions for this group of women and their families upon entering the shelter, during their stay and after leaving it.

Due to the levels of depression reported by the Arab women, a practical implication of this study focuses on the need to monitor the mental health of these women when entering the shelters, and their ability to adapt in the shelters. It is necessary to examine the various therapeutic means offered for coping with and treating depression, including pharmaceutical treatments.

Future studies focusing on domestic violence against women should expand the research tools which are used, especially among minorities like the Arab minority in Israel, so that they will be able to capture significant issues pertaining these women, such as: the involvement of the family in the woman's life, informal support networks, the historical, political and cultural background of the women and their reality. In addition, in light of the relatively large and painful number of Arab women murdered by their spouses each year, we recommend future studies re-examine life threatening experiences and their association with other variables.